Teaching Expertise

Geography in The Early Years

Geography can reward the inquisitiveness of young children, says Steve Mynard

Foundation Stage Curriculum

Knowledge and understanding of the world A sense of place: Observe, find out about, and identify features in the place they live and the natural world.

Find out about their environment, and talk about those features they like and dislike.

Exploration and investigation Look closely at similarities, differences, patterns and change.

Ask questions about why things happen and how things work.

Why do we teach geography?

When I ask teachers who attend the geography field trips and courses I run why we teach children geography there are two key reasons: to be aware of their place in the world; and to understand human influences on the world.

These reasons sum up the two halves of geographical knowledge and understanding – physical geography and human geography. Or to put it another way – the natural world and what people have changed about it to suit the way they want to live. We need to keep these two key elements in mind when introducing children to the world around them through geography.

The world is exciting and interesting. Children want to know why things are as they are and geography can reward this inquisitiveness.

Getting children fired up and interested in the environment is another reason often near the top of teachers’ lists. Increasingly we are aware of the negative impact people can have on the world. The children we are teaching now will grow up faced with issues such as global warming. Geography will help them understand the issues and find solutions.

Skills development

Concept of place

Our concept of our place in the world grows like the ripples made by a pebble dropped into a pond. At first the child knows their home and garden, then the local streets and shops and the way to play-group. As they grow older their recognition of their world grows to include the village or town, beyond their local estate and on to holiday destinations.

Concept of change

Places change with the seasons and over longer periods of time. Gardening projects help children to understand the former and watching the demolition of a local building or the steady growth of new houses show the latter. Make children aware of the changes that occur in the world around them with frequent visits to see these changes in progress.

Taking responsibility

From the earliest age children need to appreciate that as citizens of the world we have a responsibility towards it. Knowing that we turn off taps and light switches when we are not using them and putting paper in the recycling bin help to nurture this key life skill.

Investigating

Encouraging an inquisitive outlook on life and prompting children to ask questions about why the world around them is as it is builds a good foundation for future geographical enquiry. Where does the fruit we eat at break time come from? How does it get here?

Observing and recording

Extend children’s vocabulary with opportunities to observe and record daily changes in their environment such as the weather or the budding of trees.

As you plan activities try to match them to a specific skill, and consider how it will allow that skill to be encouraged, nurtured and developed.

Former primary headteacher Steve Mynard runs Metaphor Learning, a company dedicated to promoting creativity and imaginative approaches to reintegrating the curriculum.

Some practical ideas for teaching geography to young children

Concept of place:

  • Road map mats with cars, people and buildings provide the way into viewpoints. This form of spatial awareness is an essential first stage in the progression of map-work skills.
  • Encourage children to create and play with a wide range of environments; train sets, farms and airports. Bring in sand and water play to widen the opportunities further.
  • Help children to see that the worlds they have created look different from above (bird’s-eye view) and from the side (ant’s-eye view). Get children to move back and forth between these views and describe what they can and cannot see in each view.
  • Giving and following directions
  • Taking teddy on a journey around the classroom or the outside play area, giving and following directions, helps children express themselves clearly, develop accuracy in what they are telling the other person as well as listening carefully.

Concept of change:

Weather

Make the observation and recording of the weather a daily feature of your work. There are many good resources available to do this or children can agree their own symbols to go on a weather chart and make them in their own way.

Growing things

Grow beans or cress – anything that grows quickly and where changes can be seen.

  • On the first day of each month, photograph a tree that can be seen from your setting and display the pictures.

Observing and recording:

  • If you have aerial photos of your local area children love looking at these and are delighted when they spot features they recognize. Children’s own paintings of the places can be linked with a thread to the photo image to make a display.
  • Take a digital camera out on any journey and record the features you come across – streams, bridges, telephone masts, clumps of trees, a post box, weeds breaking through the tarmac. All of these are geographical features.
  • Draw a large map of the area immediately around your setting and display the photos, and children’s own paintings or models in the appropriate location.
  • Make a model in the damp sand, with hills, valleys, etc, that can be named.

Investigating

  • Taking your children out of the setting on a journey provides the opportunity for exploring geographical features. ‘We are walking uphill.’ ‘We are turning the corner.’ ‘We are crossing the road.’ ‘We can see a long way from this hilltop.’
  • Keep it local while they are young. There really is no need to go further than a few hundred meters from your setting to find a wealth of features that will interest children and encourage them to ask questions.

Multi-Sensory Environments in Special Schools

Sound is now an integral part of the sensory environments that exist in many special schools, and the latest technology involved encourages interaction, stimulation and feedback

They come in all shapes and sizes and, as small, Victorian-built special schools make way for much larger state-of-the-art edifices, architects are including them in their new designs. Multi-sensory environments are now firmly established as part of the therapeutic facilities of many special schools. But with their origins in the snoezelen rooms of the 1970s, they too have undergone something of a metamorphosis. Rooms whose key features were soft structures and ball-pools have been replaced with hi-tech environments using the latest technology to transform pupils’ sensory experience. Replete with state-of-the-art lighting systems and projectors they can transport pupils to faraway places. And part of creating that ‘other world’ is, of course, sound. Take the example of Ysgol Pendalar in Caernarfon, North Wales, where Experia provided a sensory pool, soft play environment and two sensory rooms for a new purpose-built school costing some £4.6m. The school, which is very much part of the local community, caters for approximately 85 pupils from 3–19 years of age with a variety of needs. The suppliers worked closely with architects, building contractors and other trades to ensure that floor and wall coverings, ventilation, heating and electrical infrastructure were best suited for the areas, while staff got on with managing the move from their old premises. The pool required some specialist knowledge and equipment due to height limitations of the room. Low voltage equipment was necessary in the pool area to meet with health and safety legislation and Experia was one of two companies able to supply this. The lighting within the pool included new IRiS LED lights to flood the area with colour, IRiS shape projectors and IRiS light changers—all which are controlled by the pupils from within the pool using state of the art IRiS fully submersible switches. Interactive Solar 250 projectors were used to create background lighting and effects on the walls and ceiling. Sound within the pool was emitted by high spec BOSE speakers, ensuring absolute clarity. In the interactive sensory room a quality sound system with radio microphone was also used to encourage vocalization.

Children in control

Whereas earlier sensory environments were all about relaxation, new switch technology—and new pedagogic approaches— have now put interaction, stimulation and feedback to the fore. Carefully constructed multi-sensory environments can be used to encourage pupils to begin to exercise a degree of control over their experiences. Phil Ellis of iMUSE at the University of Sunderland recently described two examples of introducing music/sound technology to children with cerebral palsy (CP) and profound and multiple learning difficulties (PMLD), which further inspired him to create a ‘sonic environment’—a quiet space in which a child or adult could choose to be silent or to create and control sound simply through movement. As Phil explains:

‘An important feature of the therapy is that it is essentially non-invasive, with an emphasis placed on the creation of a highly controlled environment in which individuals are able to choose to develop a range of skills through aesthetic interaction with sound. The essence lies in the internal motivation of the individual; in working from the ‘inside-out’. At all times the individual is given the opportunity to take control of the situation as far as possible. It seems that by giving a person absolute control over sound—where even the smallest movement can generate a sound—the development of expression, interaction, physical control and a sense of wellbeing can take place.’
 The Development of Interactive Multisensory Environments for Expression, 1992–2007

Phil’s equipment included a digital sound processor and microphone, which were used to develop a range of vocal rather than verbal skills, and a Soundbeam. The latter is used as a standalone piece of equipment in many SEN settings, but it is also increasingly included in multisensory environments. By interacting with the ultrasonic beam emitted by the equipment the user can convert physical movement into electronically produced sound. Even the slightest gesture—a flick of the hand, a nod of the head—can produce a musical equivalent. If you would like to get some idea of what people with learning difficulties or disabilities can achieve with the Soundbeam then try logging on to www.myspace.com/bykersoundbeam It will do wonders for your blood pressure. While the original Soundbeam has undergone some significant changes since it was introduced, it has also inspired a whole new world of vibroacoustic equipment, such as the Soundbed, Soundchair, Soundbox and Minibox. These contain loudspeakers mounted beneath resonant cavities that transmit vibration directly to the person sitting or lying on them, enabling the vibrations of sound and music to be experienced physically. These are an ideal feature for any child who is deaf or hearing impaired.

Hydrotherapy

Of course, sound can be used in any therapeutic setting and there is a growing trend to include it in swimming and hydrotherapy pools. A typical example is Bleasdale House Special Needs School in Lancashire, where SpaceKraft has carried out a makeover of the school’s pool, installing its Sensory Show Magic system, which produces interactive sound and lighting effects. LED lighting installed by the company offers 16.4 million colors at the flick of a switch and, because these switches can be operated from the poolside, all learners can now control the equipment themselves and have a direct influence on their surroundings. SpaceKraft was also able to reprogram many of the existing lights and make other features work more effectively. The school currently has 25 children aged between two and 19 who use the new pool, and the emphasis is on learning. According to headteacher Bob Wright, ‘All our children have profound and multiple learning difficulties, physical difficulties and other associated sensory difficulties, and the new equipment provides a combination of effects that we can use in themed approaches with the children in lessons. When they’re in the water, they’re not just swimming or doing a water activity; the aim is to embellish activities, to accentuate all learning experiences. Our aim is to provide as many experiences as possible for this particular group of children. It’s about the pupils affecting their own environment; it’s about control and it’s about learning.’

Reaching all the senses

In a separate installation in Sandgate Special School in Kendal, Cumbria, SpaceKraft has included a high-class sound system in a new multisensory room that is proving a huge success with staff and pupils. Headteacher Tom Robson explains, ‘We like to call the room our sensory studio because it’s a creative space where you can do lots of activities, from working with individuals through to delivering whole- class lessons related to particular topics or themes. For example, in a geography lesson themed on deserts, we can actually make the room hotter to support the idea. It’s great! The system is remote controlled and interactive so that pupils can affect their own environment, even though they may have limited movement. We also have a huge digital projection system.’

Finding solutions for your setting

Naturally, in any design project it is crucial that staff and pupils are fully involved to ensure that the finished product meets their needs. Important lessons can be learned from schools that have already seen projects through to completion. Visits or telephone conversations are well worth making before you finalize your own plans. Not all solutions demand huge spaces and even bigger budgets. Most companies can offer a design service but it is important that the project isn’t company led.

One example of this approach is Beatrice Tate School in east London, which caters for pupils aged 11–19 with severe or profound multiple learning difficulties. After careful thought and planning it opted for a flexible studio system where the space could be used for a variety of functions. As headteacher Alan Black explains: ‘I wanted multi-sensory education to be challenging, innovative, fun and not an activity that could be effectively carried out only in a dedicated room.’ As a result, Alan’s final instructions to the builders were to construct two rooms of different sizes that could be completely dark when required. Both rooms would be completely white with contrasting floor color, air conditioning, large storage spaces and a high quality audio system located in the store with speakers concealed in the room ceilings. Studio 1 would have windows to the corridor with white blinds and a ceiling window with an electric white blind to allow daylight to light the room naturally, if required, and an interactive whiteboard and projector. Studio 2 would be smaller with an overhead hoist and would be dedicated to the needs of a small group of pupils. Up to 40 electrical points were added to the walls, ceiling and floor so that multi-sensory resources could be situated anywhere within the room. Solutions like those of Beatrice Tate School demonstrate that when it comes to multi-sensory environments, as with many other aspects of educational provision, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Indeed there are signs that some of the features of what used to be an ‘exclusive’ feature of school provision are finding their way into general classroom design. Certainly as the Building Schools for the Future program gathers pace, with its emphasis on co-location, there is evidence that something initially seen as special will increasingly become mainstream. Ambient music already plays a role in maintaining a relaxed atmosphere in some mainstream schools and the recent acquisition of SpaceKraft by RM attests to the demands being placed on major suppliers to cater for a wider group of needs as part of the BSF program. Whatever solution or supplier schools opt for, however, it is equally important that staff training is built into any budget if the benefits of major installations are to be realized. Equipment like Soundbeam may come as part of a multisensory package but like any sophisticated piece of equipment there is the ever present danger that it will be under-used or even forgotten if there isn’t a member of staff on hand who knows how to get the best from it.

Ebac Humanities: A Savior Or A Curse?

Two Ofsted reports later, and geography and history are back in the news. Suzanne O’Connell asks: will the arrival of the English baccalaureate improve their status, or will their clustering as part of ‘humanities’ be their downfall?

At a glance The Ebac has arrived and includes its own selection of subjects under the heading of humanities. Suzanne O’Connell analyses:

  • Ofsted’s recent report – History for All: History in English Schools 2007/2010 – which concluded that history teaching was strong in the majority of schools it visited
  • the views of those who disagree
  • the less complimentary Ofsted report into geography, Learning to Make a World of Difference
  • whether teachers of either subject need to worry now they have a place in the Ebac.

Applying for my BEd many years ago, I took the option of specializing in humanities. Humanities as defined by Leeds Polytechnic’s education department comprised history, English and RE. For some reason, probably related to the strength of the geography department at the college, geography had a specialist option of its own. Each subject was studied separately and there seemed to be little justification for this almost random combination. It was a marriage of convenience.

Now the Ebac has arrived and includes its own selection of subjects under the heading of humanities. In order for pupils to attain an Ebac they need to have achieved at least one GCSE at grades A* to C in geography or history (and this includes ancient history). A victory for history and geography, perhaps at the expense of omitted subjects such as RE. So are history and geography in need of rescuing and will the Ebac be the superhero to do it?

History is holding its own…

At least as far as Ofsted is concerned, history teaching is strong in the majority of schools visited. History for All: History in English Schools 2007/2010 is the latest report from Ofsted evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of history in primary and secondary schools. It suggests that overall, history is being taught successfully in schools and that most pupils enjoy it. In 59 of the 83 secondary schools visited achievement in the subject was good or outstanding. ‘History was generally taught well and the subject was well led. Most pupils enjoyed well-planned lessons that extended their knowledge, challenged their thinking and enhanced their understanding.’ Secondary schools, in particular, are congratulated. Ofsted notes that the teachers of history in secondary schools are very well qualified and comments on the strong leadership they witnessed in the history departments.

Interestingly, it also comments that, ‘the view that too little British history is taught in secondary schools in England is a myth. Pupils in the schools visited studied a considerable amount of British history and knew a great deal about the particular topics covered.’ What Ofsted does criticize is an overemphasis on English history at the expense of the other countries in Britain.

The content of the history syllabus is almost as controversial and frequently discussed as how to teach reading. Teaching factual knowledge in history is almost seen as being on a par with teaching ‘the basics’. Alongside the importance of learning phonics and how to check your change comes the recitation of Kings and Queens of England. Some would say that without this information we are ill-equipped for the future and will lose sight of our past. Include Henry VIII and sanity is restored.

Nick Gibb, minister of state for schools, has strong views about what should be taught. In his speech at last summer’s Reform think-tank conference he was far less complimentary about history teaching and learning than Ofsted: ‘Professor Derek Matthews’ practice of quizzing his first-year history undergraduates over a three-year period shows depressing evidence of the state of teaching knowledge in history. Almost twice as many students thought Nelson rather than Wellington was in charge at the Battle of Waterloo and nearly 90% couldn’t name a single British prime minister of the 19th Century… What is to be criticized is an education system which has relegated the importance of knowledge in favor of ill-defined learning skills.’ These were comments that the newspapers fell upon with relish.

In response to Ofsted’s report, Nick Gibb is unequivocal in his view that secondary schools are squeezing history out of the curriculum in favor of general humanities courses. ‘The facts, dates and narrative of history cannot be learnt in disparate chunks – without them we cannot compare, interpret or evaluate the past or draw lessons from it.’ We can all picture, and some of us have experienced, the kind of history that Mr Gibb would prefer to see.

The evidence from Ofsted is that rather than being in decline, history is largely holding its own. It continues to be a popular subject at Key Stage 4 and the number of students in England choosing to study it has remained stable. History is certainly alive and kicking – if a little diluted in places. But what about geography?

… but geography is causing concern

The picture here isn’t quite as rosy. The Ofsted report into geography, Learning to Make a World of Difference raises a number of concerns about geography teaching in both primary and secondary schools. Achievement at KS3 was reported as being ‘relatively weak’, with uninspiring teaching during this Key Stage deterring many pupils from taking the subject for GCSE.

Ofsted claims that secondary schools have reduced their time for geography in KS3 and that this is partly due to the introduction of ‘poorly planned and taught integrated units of work in the humanities in Year 7′. Fieldwork and current events are not used often enough, there is insufficient opportunity for writing in-depth and geography teaching and learning does not help pupils understand their place in the world, either locally, nationally or internationally.

Ofsted reports that the number of schools not entering students for GCSE geography is increasing, with 137 schools not entering students for GCSE in 2009 compared to 97 in 2007. Many pupils at KS3 reported that they found the subject boring or irrelevant, an opinion that seems to be reflected by an increasing number of schools ignoring its study. So in the humanities wars, it would seem that history comes out top, on occasions at the expense of geography. But do teachers of either subject need to worry now that they have a place in the Ebac?

Subjects fighting for inclusion

Never has there been more debate about what humanities is and should be than with the advent of the Ebac. Suddenly a theoretical debate that was perhaps the preserve of university lecturers has entered mainstream discussions and peppers Twitter. The government has not been over-generous with its choice of subjects in the humanities category. Most surprising is the absence of RE or RS – a decision with particular implications for schools with a religious character.

Feeling is running high at the National Association of Teachers of Religious Education (NATRE) about this omission. So much so that they are currently urging members and other interested individuals to lobby MPs and write to the secretary of state. Their concern centers around the impact as schools remove full-course religious studies options in favor of those subjects that do count towards the Ebac. ‘The unintended consequences of not including GCSE RS as an option in the English baccalaureate is that many schools will cease to offer RS at GCSE altogether. This in turn will have a very negative impact on the number of student taking RS at A-level, and therefore on the applications for theology and religious studies at degree level’ (extract from suggested letter to secretary of state supplied by RE Today and NATRE).

The inclusion and omission of any subject from a performance indicator such as the Ebac can have profound and devastating effects. NATRE is already reporting that schools are reacting to its omission with negative timetabling decisions and reductions in staffing in RE departments.

It’s not just RE that has been omitted. Across the country there are supporters of different areas of learning such as classical civilization, citizenship and creative studies who are up in arms at the absence of their subjects. The Spanish bachillerato and the French baccalauréat both include ‘philosophy’ as part of their core entitlement. Should this also be included under a humanities option?

A broader concept of humanities

Specialist humanities colleges represent a far broader understanding of the concept of humanities. They must select as their specialist subject a minimum of one subject from English, history, geography or citizenship and choose two other subjects from religious education, humanities, classics (classical civilization, Latin or Greek), drama, English, history, geography or citizenships.

Through promoting the ‘humanities ethos’ these specialist colleges are expected to offer an enriched school experience. It’s not only the content of what is delivered but the way it is offered that matters here. Theatre in education, writers’ visits, poets and historians in residence, fieldwork and study visits are all seen as a feature of humanities in these schools.

The sense of extended services goes even further. Humanities colleges are charged with promoting learning in the local community through intergenerational initiatives, interfaith work and partnerships with local museums. This is more than selecting individual subjects under one heading. This is touching on a humanitarian definition of humanities. It suggests that there is so much more to studying the humanities than learning the names of the Kings and Queens of England and the lakes and rivers of Europe.

As things stand, however, the Ebac humanities has no interest in this wider brief and may even mitigate against the combined study of history and geography. What will its impact be?

Facing choices: the impact of the Ebac

We have already referred to the anxieties of the subject associations. For those subjects not included there must be implications. But as they continue to lobby for a place is the position of history and geography really secure? Rather than the Ebac enhancing their status, could these two companions find themselves at loggerheads?

Traditionally many pupils might opt to take both history and geography. Now timetabling restrictions could make this more difficult, with both subjects grappling with one another to gain the Ebac tick in the humanities box.

Professor Chris Husbands, director of the Institute of Education, University of London, raises concerns about the impact there might be of placing the two subjects in one category, saying: ‘Some pupils are taking both history and geography; that may be more difficult as de facto the Ebac will put history up against geography in the options system.’

If we use Ofsted’s subject reports as an indicator, we might speculate that it is geography that will lose out in this head-to-head challenge.

Of greater concern, however, to Professor Husbands is whether schools make the Ebac subjects available to all their pupils: ‘My assumption is that the effect of the Ebac will be firstly to force a choice between history and geography and secondly for this to be the case for only the top 70% or so.’ Those unlikely to make above a ‘C’ grade may no longer be given the option of studying history and geography at all.

It seems that the inclusion of humanities in the Ebac might undermine rather than enhance its study. Ironically, it may even cause tremors in geography and history departments too. History and geography in schools may not be perfect but there is still plenty to lose if the government’s plans go wrong. The human experience is worthy of study and all our pupils should have opportunity to select their preferences without timetabling restrictions forced on schools by performance table pressures.

Suzanne O’Connell is a former headteacher

Without Geography, You Are Nowhere

Why has geography lost its status? Dr. John Hopkin, chair of the Geographical Association’s Education Committee, looks at ways in which geography can be put back on the school map.

I bumped into an old friend the other day, an assistant head at a local secondary school. ‘Got to tell you John – I put my head out of the office today and was almost mown down by Year 8! Of course I asked what was going on: “We’ve got geography!” they cried and rushed off down the corridor’.

Those youngsters are lucky to be taught by an enthusiastic and innovative young team, convinced by the value of geography and leading users of ICT, who have managed to capture their curiosity, interest and enthusiasm. It goes without saying that their GCSE geography groups are bursting at the seams and that the results they achieve are outstanding.

Geography past and present

If only all students had these opportunities, in every school. For much of the 1980s and 1990s geography was one of the most popular optional subjects at GCSE. Its success was the result of topical and relevant subject matter, varied resources and practical, varied, hands-on learning style (well before VAK was invented). As a result it did well for boys’ as well as girls’ achievement and morale was high among most geography professionals.

But more recently geography has come under sustained pressure. At Key Stage 3, there is too much variation in the way students experience geography. A series of Ofsted reports have identified high-quality provision in many schools, alongside weak performance in others – commonly linked to inadequate curriculum time, weak curriculum planning, poor resources and over-use of non-specialist teachers. GCSE results overall are as good as in other subjects and it is still a popular option, but numbers taking geography have fallen year on year, with knock-on effects at A-level and degree level.

So what has gone wrong? For ex-HMCI David Bell, there is no more relevant subject than geography to prepare young people for the 21st century. But paradoxically, at a time when geography’s relevance to young people and their future might appear to be self-evident, the education system at all levels seems to have suffered a collective loss of confidence in what the subject can deliver.

Gradually but inexorably, geography has been relegated to the lower ranks of the subject status league. Partly this reflects the relentless pursuit of standards in the core subjects, partly the value placed on higher-profile areas of the curriculum such as sport and the arts. At GCSE, particularly, a greater range of subjects and the expansion of vocational courses have expanded the opportunities (although not always the choices) for students, whilst often constraining geography courses. Moreover, as awarding bodies have transformed themselves into commercial organizations interested more in market-share than the curriculum so, in common with other subjects, a number of geography specifications have become tired and uninspiring. Students who do opt for geography may find their courses too similar to what they studied at Key Stage 3; at worst their experience of GCSE geography can seem more like a version of recent history, rather than an opportunity to discover a rapidly changing world, relevant to their future.

Fieldwork, a cornerstone of geography in the real world, is also struggling. Although it is an entitlement for KS3 and integral to GCSE and A-level geography courses, it is under pressure from a combination of concerns about time, teacher workload and pupil safety. Yet fieldwork should be central to developing students’ direct experience, enjoyment and deep understanding of the environment; and good quality fieldwork has a clear impact on achievement. Geography field trips are for many students among the most memorable experiences of their school lives.

Outdated views?

But does geography really matter? Many geographers believe their subject is handicapped by an outdated view of what it has to offer – at worst a distant memory of endless facts (plus oxbow lakes), which is far removed from geography classrooms today.

Geography’s distinctive contribution is to develop students’ understanding of the relationships between people and their environment, together with a set of skills to investigate these, and a particular kind of spatial thinking. It affords wide-ranging opportunities to align students’ learning with their interests, with current events and with their futures. Geography teachers’ recent responses to the South Asian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina are good examples, as is the way many undoubtedly used the World Cup tournament to develop students’ understanding of place, location and globalization.

Geography classrooms are places where students develop their debating and decision-making skills and the understanding that society faces difficult choices, where solutions are often hard to find. Taken together, geography offers students relevance and significance, linking them to the real world in a way other subjects cannot match.

Missing links

Let’s put the question another way. What would students leaving school without a significant geographical education miss out on? Aside from not knowing about lots of interesting stuff from the causes of earthquakes to fair trade, from sustainable energy choices to coral reefs, at a very basic level the spatial dimension of their thinking will be less developed.

Without this conceptual scaffolding on which to hang their knowledge of places in the local area, the UK and the wider world, to add new places and events as they come across them, and figure out the relationships between them all, their geographical imaginations will be limited.

They will be less able to understand, question, and take advantage of an increasingly complex and interconnected world. For students from mobile – and usually better-off – families this will be less restricting than for those for whose experience is already more constrained. As 21st-century citizens, they will be bombarded with information from around the world, but will be less well equipped to make sense of it; they will likely be less well informed, perhaps less confident, and even less employable.

Geography resurgence

In spite of all these concerns, there is also much to celebrate. One is the standard of teachers – the quality of newly qualified teachers (NQTs) specializing in geography has never been higher. They are passionate about geography and keen to try out new ways of connecting the world with their students. At KS3, geographers have often been those teachers taking the lead in developing their pedagogy, whilst still finding time to renew the curriculum, for example by developing thinking skills. At GCSE, the success of the QCA’s popular pilot geography specification shows how support for curriculum development can dynamize the subject.

Geographers are also fortunate in having two of the most active of the subject associations, the Geographical Association (GA) and the Royal Geographical Society, campaigning strongly for geography. One result is the DfES’s Action Plan for Geography, launched in March, a £2m package of support to boost geography in schools.

The action plan’s goal is to enthuse young people and provide a clear vision of geography as a relevant and powerful part of the curriculum. The funding will support a new bank of inspirational teaching resources, together with guidance and training for teachers and subject leaders, and enable access to the Geographical Association’s Geography Quality Mark for geography departments.

Geography futures

By the time this article is published, the QCA’s curriculum review will be ready. To free up curriculum time and enable greater flexibility of study for students, there will be less prescription, including less detail in programs of study for subjects like geography. One scenario is for schools to opt for more of the same – using this freedom to release more time for the core and preparation for SATs, but with less time to the rest of the curriculum, and increased competition between other subjects for what time and resources are left.

A second, more optimistic outcome would be to see this review as a real opportunity to re-orientate KS3 towards an experience more fit for students in the 21st century. In this scenario, schools would take a fresh look at what we are trying to do with learning for this age group, perhaps designing a curriculum more customized to meet students’ current and future needs.

This second scenario would see subjects across the whole curriculum, not as a distraction, but as contributing to promoting excellence and enjoyment and as a key to raising attainment in the core. There would be more collaboration between subjects, looking at subject disciplines and the specialist knowledge of teachers as resources for learning, all contributing to achieving the school’s goals.

Take global warming. We know that by the time the students currently in our schools reach middle age, they will be living in a warmer world, our generation’s legacy to them. It will be a more hazardous world, with new patterns of migration, more pressure on ecosystems and on resources such as water and energy. There will be direct impacts on human wellbeing, affecting unequally the global haves and have-nots. It is the single most important problem facing young people. They will face some difficult choices – and we have an obligation to ensure their education equips them well with the knowledge, understanding and skills to make good decisions.

In the current curriculum model it is probable that students will learn something of climate change in both science and geography lessons. In some exceptional schools this work will be complementary, but in many collaboration is likely to be limited, so it is also probable that students will experience considerable repetition as well as gaps in their understanding.

Fresh thinking

The current curriculum revision is an opportunity for fresh thinking about big issues such as this. Geographers might argue that they have perhaps more to say about climate change than others, linking understanding of the physical processes which explain climate change with the human dimensions of impacts and choices. But new curriculum thinking should recognize that several subjects have their own perspective to offer and for learning to be most effective it is essential that they are involved.

In a more flexible curriculum framework, working in a more cross-curricular way is likely to improve pupils’ experience by focusing on the essential learning, pooling expertise, maximizing scarce time and resources and letting each discipline work to its strengths.

You could make a start now, perhaps by using the DfES’s Sustainable Schools initiative as a focus to get students actively involved in sustainability and futures thinking.

Without geography, students are nowhere – they will be missing out on some key experiences and life skills. So, in the panel (right), I have listed 10 things you can do as a critical friend to your geography team. With your support they will do great things for your students.

Ten ways headteachers can support geography

1. Look for specialists

It’s no easier for non-specialist teachers to develop your students’ geographical understanding than their scientific thinking or musical skills, so employ geographers if you possibly can. They will have an un-matched passion and enthusiasm for their subject and a much clearer idea about learning and progression. Your students will enjoy their geography more and you’ll get better results.

2. Curriculum thinking

Have another look at your school aims. They probably include something about developing a range of skills for employment and preparing young people to be citizens of the 21st century.  Geography can help you achieve these.

3. Curriculum mapping

QCA’s curriculum review is a great opportunity to develop complementary work between subjects. Geographers are used to thinking in this way: look for synergies with science, history and citizenship, maybe even with MFL and English. But look for repetition too – it’s no wonder students don’t find their curriculum motivating if they study topics like rainforests, erosion and energy resources in geography and again in science.

4. Subjects

Your specialist geography teachers are almost certainly pretty good classroom practitioners already. Being an enquiring lot, they have probably been busy renewing their teaching using the Secondary Strategy CPD materials. But it’s just as important to update subject knowledge – the new TDA standards emphasize this. So why not encourage them to seek out some geography CPD – for example at the GA annual conference in April 2007!

5. ICT

Most geographers are avid users of ICT – it’s often the best way of bringing the world into their classrooms, and they have paved the way in using interactive whiteboard technology to enhance their teaching. Talk to them about it – especially about whether students have enough hands-on opportunities to use ICT to enhance their geography learning.

6. Think GIS

Geographic Information Systems help your pizza delivery or taxi get to you quickly, police fight crime in your local area and Tesco plan their latest supermarket site. GIS is already a major employer in the UK, with geographers in great demand. There are some sensational GIS applications for schools – a real opportunity to contribute to geographical understanding whilst developing very marketable skills.

7. Think global

How well does your curriculum prepare young people for the world they are growing up in? China will be the 21st-century global superpower – its rise is already affecting all our lives. Encourage your geographers to take on the challenge.

8. Real world learning

High-quality fieldwork is an unbeatable learning experience and one that few students will forget, but it takes a determined geography department, and support from senior management to keep it alive.

9. Sustainable schools

DfES is launching a major initiative on sustainable schools: your geography department could be the focus of this learning across the curriculum; they are experts in getting the students involved through enquiry learning.

10. School linking

A great way to bring the world into the classroom, with unbeatable opportunities for students to make direct connections with, and learn from, young people from other cultures.

How can citizenship update geography?

Kato Cruwys Harris explains how teachers can make geography more relevant to society and young people by incorporating lessons on citizenship

Modern geography teaching presents an ideal opportunity for delivering citizenship at KS3 through studies of personal geographies and national identity. This article considers the role that geography can play in enabling pupils to learn about citizenship, first by assessing the ability of the geography curriculum to incorporate new objectives for citizenship learning, and then by outlining practical lesson activities through which these objectives can be met.

A role for geography?

Nationally, geography is in decline. Subject uptake is falling at KS4 and KS5 as geography is increasingly seen as old-fashioned and irrelevant by pupils, parents and the popular media. The subject’s well-known studies of processes and landforms date from the 1960s and many observers joke about oxbow lakes and ‘colouring-in’ as though that’s all the subject has to offer. Newer subjects, such as politics and media studies, are gaining a foothold: pupils see these as the subjects that will underpin 21st century civilisation.

However, geography doesn’t have to be the ugly sister of the humanities family. A timely makeover can lend the subject a new lease of life in the secondary curriculum and the national curriculum for citizenship offers a golden opportunity for modernisation. At KS3 in citizenship, pupils are expected to know about diversity and identity, to learn problem-solving skills and to understand their role in the global community (see www.nc.uk.net). Geography is ideally placed to help pupils achieve these citizenship objectives. Teachers who are interested in undertaking further reading about the combination of geography and citizenship will find several informative articles in David Lambert and Paul Machon’s anthology, dating from the launch of the national curriculum for citizenship (Lambert and Machon, 2001).

Suggested lesson activities

Two lesson activities are outlined here. They do not offer an exhaustive scheme of work but represent a small-scale sample of possible learning tasks, which can act as starting points for any geography teacher seeking to introduce citizenship at KS3. The topics of the lessons are personal geographies and national identity. Each lesson is of the author’s own devising and has been experienced by Year 7 and Year 8 classes in the author’s school, the City of London School (www.clsb.org.uk). Further learning tasks are suggested by Margaret Roberts in her book for the Geographical Association (Roberts, 2003).

Lesson one: personal geographies

The learning objective was to consider how we see places as belonging to us. Specifically, the lesson’s enquiry identified pupils’ direct and indirect knowledge of their home region. Pupils were given an outline map of the United Kingdom. First, they were asked to identify locations they had visited (‘direct knowledges’). Second, they labelled locations of which they had some awareness (‘indirect experiences’). Third, they depicted activities that take place in different parts of the country. The collective direct knowledges, indirect experiences and depicted activities were assembled on a composite map.

There were three particular trends: a familiarity with a wide array of places within a hundred-mile radius of London, a focusing of familiarity with places in south-west England, and a focusing of familiarity with places in the north of England. The pupils were able to identify these patterns on the composite map, and suggest reasons for them. Some areas were largely omitted from pupils’ personal geographies. Not one pupil named a location in Northern Ireland or Wales; only four pupils identified places in Scotland. The only activity labelled in any of these countries was ‘crime’, which was placed in Northern Ireland by four pupils. This is typical of an ‘us’ and ‘them’ construction of personal geographies. Pupils were invited to confront this discrimination, not only to discover how it is produced and maintained but also how it is open to challenge.

Lesson two: national identity

The learning objective was to consider how we see ourselves as belonging to places. The pupils were asked to name six London tourist sites that they felt were important in establishing the identity of the UK. There were two criteria: sites had to be the sort of places that tourists would want to see, and sites needed to portray London’s culture as it ‘really is’. This exercise was followed by a discussion in which the pupils explained the selections they had made. The follow-up task required the pupils to prepare a three-day itinerary for a holiday marketed under the name ‘Real London’. The aim of the trip was to provide tourists with an accurate portrayal of London culture. This lesson’s enquiry focused on pupils’ direct knowledge of the home region which was compared to more ‘official’ versions. The pupils were able to re-script the UK’s national identity to include their own values and cultures, along with those that they perceived as important to other groups.

Mapping the future

There has never been a more appropriate time to introduce social understanding into the geography curriculum. Narrow conceptions of national identity still have a much greater influence on the geography curriculum than peace studies and intercultural education. This needs to be reversed, and the marriage of geography and citizenship presents a method of doing so while simultaneously ‘updating’ secondary school geography.

Perhaps there is more at stake here than citizenship delivery and geography uptake. Our local communities experience social exclusion in many forms, and our global community is torn by sectariansim and conflict. Geography teachers should not only aim to teach about social exclusion: they should seek to end it.

References

Lambert, D and Machon, P, eds (2001) Citizenship Through Secondary Geography. London: RoutledgeFalmer

Roberts, M (2003) Learning Through Enquiry: Making Sense of Geography in  the Key Stage 3 Classroom. Sheffield: Geographical Association

Kato Cruwys Harris teachers geography at the City of London School. he is studying for an MA Geography in Education at the Institute of Education, University of London.

Lessons on China

With the 2008 Olympics being based in China, many schools have been turning their attention to the country for inspiring lessons and lesson plans. Robert Sinclair offers some ideas

With the Olympic flame already making its momentous journey through the world, eyes are now turning towards Beijing in China for this year’s Olympic Games. Newspapers, television news reports and magazines are full of information on the games and China – and with all this stimuli flying about now is the perfect time to look at the topic of China as a source of cross-curricular teaching and learning. Many curriculum subjects can be incorporated into a study of China, with a study of Chinese history and geography offering a wealth of inspiring lesson ideas. Some primary schools are also now offering Chinese in their language lessons. St Paul’s Primary School in South Manchester has become one of the first in the UK to teach Chinese as part of its curriculum – with help from teachers supplied by the Confucius Institute at The University of Manchester.

History ideas

China is one of the world’s oldest continuous civilizations. The history of China extends as far back as 5,000 years ago. Recorded history is supplemented by archaeological records dating back to the 16th century BC. This means that as a history topic, China offers more than enough for engaging lessons.

A potted history of China

The history of China is complicated, and is typically perceived as being that of a country alternating between periods of political unity and disunity, and occasionally becoming dominated by foreign peoples. However, a (very) brief history follows for your own reference:

  • The beginning – Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow River valley. The year 221 BC is commonly accepted to be the year in which China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. In that year, Qin Shi Huang first united China. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory.
  • Xia Dynasty – The Xia Dynasty is believed to date back to 4,200 years ago. The Shang and Zhou people had existed within the Xia Dynasty since the beginning of Xia. The exact time of the Xia Dynasty is hard to define, but mainly focused on two options, either 431 years or 471 years.
  • Shang Dynasty – The earliest discovered written record of China’s past dates from the Shang Dynasty in perhaps the 13th century BC, and takes the form of inscriptions on the bones or shells of animals — the so-called oracle bones. The Shang Dynasty featured 31 kings, from Tang of Shang to King Zhou of Shang; it was the longest dynasty in Chinese history.
  • Zhou Dynasty – By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou Dynasty began to emerge in the Yellow River valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou were a people who lived west of Shang, and the Zhou leader had been appointed ‘Western Protector’ by the Shang. The ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, with the assistance of his uncle, the Duke of Zhou, as regent, managed to defeat the Shang at the Battle of Muye. The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern Xi’an, near the Yellow River.
  • Qin Dynasty – Historians often refer to the period from Qin Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty as Imperial China. The Qin Dynasty is well known for beginning the Great Wall of China, which was later augmented and enhanced during the Ming Dynasty.
  • Han Dynasty – The Han Dynasty emerged in 206 BC. It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of Confucianism, which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of Imperial China.
  • Jin Dynasty – The three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in 278 by the Jin Dynasty.
  • Sui Dynasty – The Sui Dynasty, which managed to reunite the country in 589 after nearly four centuries of political fragmentation, played a role more important than its length of existence would suggest. The Sui brought China together again and set up many institutions that were to be adopted by their successors, the Tang.
  • Tang Dynasty – In 618, Gaozu took the throne, and the Tang Dynasty was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. Buddhism, which had gradually been established in China from the first century, became the predominant religion and was adopted by the imperial family and many of the common people.
  • Yuan Dynasty – Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, wanting to adopt the customs of China, established the Yuan Dynasty. This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from Beijing as the capital. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants – after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. The 14th century epidemics of plague is estimated to have killed 30% of the population of China.
  • Ming Dynasty – Throughout a short-lived Yuan Dynasty, there was strong sentiment, among the populace, against the rule of the foreigners, which finally led to peasant revolts. The Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.
  • Qing Dynasty – The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) was founded after the defeat of the Ming by the Manchus. An estimated 25 million people died during the Manchu conquest of Ming Dynasty (1616-1644).
  • Republic of China – Frustrated by Qing’s resistance to reform and by China’s weakness, young officials, military officers, and students began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and creation of a republic. A revolutionary military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on 10 October 1911 in Wuhan. The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanjing on 12 March 1912 with Sun Yat-sen as president, but Sun was forced to turn power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army and was prime minister under the Qing government. Yuan Shikai declared himself emperor in 1915. Yuan abdicated and died in 1916.
  • Present – With the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) on 1 October 1949, Taiwan was again politically separated from mainland China. However, the actual political and legal status of Taiwan is disputed. Since the 1990s, the Republic of China government that governs Taiwan along with associated islands and some small islands off the coast of Fujian has been pushing to gain greater international recognition, while the People’s Republic of China vehemently opposes involvement by third parties, and insists that foreign relations not deviate from the One-China policy.

With all this history, this short article could not possibly offer all the possible lesson ideas, however here are a few…

Toys

QCA Scheme of work for History; Unit 1

Ancient Chinese peoples were capable of producing elaborate movable toys. Using ordinary materials and simple tools, they made toys that were not only fun to play with but were also objects of great beauty. Clay figurines were popular toys and collectibles. These figurines revolved on spherical clay pedestals and would not fall over, even when touched by children. Cloth lion and tiger hand puppets were also popular, as were shadow puppets. Ask the pupils to find out about ancient Chinese toys and compare them to modern-day toys.

Homes and living

QCA Scheme of work for History; Unit 2

Archaeologists have uncovered many Yangshao villages in northern China from around 10,000 BC. In one village, they found the remains of farmhouses, built partly underground, with plaster floors, and roofs held up with wooden posts. About 3,000 BC, another farming group appeared, the Lungshan people. The Lungshan were very advanced for their time. They harvested silk and used it to weave fabrics. They baked strong bricks in ovens and used them to build their homes. Explain to the pupils that there are no written records for very early ancient China and our knowledge of life in ancient China comes from ruins of towns, ancient stories and legends. With this in mind, ask them to find out all they can about what it was like to live in ancient China, what sort of food did they eat, what sort of homes did they live in, what sort of clothes did they wear, etc. Then ask the children to compare life in ancient China to life today. What would it have been like to be a child living in ancient China?

In conclusion…

China offers no end of ideas for cross-curricular lessons. History (see above), geography, literacy (poetry [including Japanese Haiku] and development of writing), mathematics (suan chu – the art of calculation), languages, PSHEE (politics and democracy), art and design, drama (shadow puppets) and music can all be explored through this topic. This article only looks at history – but as a topic China offers much much more.

Useful references